Abu Hamid al-Ghazali
- Died
- 505 AH
- Born in
- Tus
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (450–505 AH / 1058–1111 CE) was a Shafi'i jurist, theologian, and Sufi scholar from Tus in Khurasan, renowned for his major spiritual and legal synthesis, Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) .
Early Life and Education
His full name was Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Tusi al-Ghazali, widely known by the honorifics Hujjat al-Islam ("Proof of Islam") and Zayn al-Din ("Ornament of the Religion") . He was born in Tus in 450 AH (1058 CE; other reports state 445 AH or 451 AH) . His nisba is commonly vocalized as al-Ghazzali (with a double z), referring to his father's occupation of spinning wool, or as al-Ghazali (with a single z), tracing back to the village of Ghazala in the district of Tus . Before his death, his father entrusted Abu Hamid and his brother Ahmad al-Ghazali to a pious Sufi friend to oversee their education . When the modest inheritance was depleted, their guardian advised them to enroll in a local madrasa to secure an upkeep while pursuing sacred learning .
Al-Ghazali began his legal studies in Tus under Ahmad al-Radhakani, subsequently traveled to Jurjan to study with Abu Nasr al-Isma'ili, and then moved to Nishapur to join the circle of Abu al-Ma'ali al-Juwayni (Imam al-Haramayn) . He remained closely attached to al-Juwayni until the latter's death in 478 AH, demonstrating early prowess in jurisprudence, dialectics, and speculative theology .
Career and Spiritual Crisis
Following the death of al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali joined the royal encampment of the Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk, where he engaged in debates with leading scholars and established a wide reputation . In Jumada al-Ula 484 AH, Nizam al-Mulk appointed him chief professor at the Nizamiyya madrasa in Baghdad . His lectures drew hundreds of prominent jurists and dignitaries, including leading Hanbalis such as Ibn Aqil and Abu al-Khattab al-Kalwadhani . During this period, he engaged deeply with philosophical discourse and composed Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers) to challenge and refute the metaphysical assertions of the philosophers .
In Dhu al-Qa'da 488 AH, al-Ghazali renounced his professorship and public prestige to embark on a spiritual path of asceticism and seclusion, appointing his brother Ahmad to teach in his place . He performed the pilgrimage to Mecca and traveled to Damascus, where he resided in the western minaret of the Umayyad Mosque and the zawiya of Nasr al-Maqdisi, before visiting Jerusalem . He also traveled to Alexandria in Egypt, reportedly intending to sail to the Maghrib to meet the Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin, but abandoned the voyage upon receiving news of the ruler's death .
Return to Khurasan and Final Years
After years of travel and spiritual practice, al-Ghazali returned to Khurasan . At the insistence of the vizier Fakhr al-Mulk, he briefly resumed public teaching at the Nizamiyya madrasa in Nishapur . He eventually retired to his native Tus, where he established a madrasa for students of sacred sciences and a khanaqah for Sufi aspirants alongside his residence . In legal theory, he produced al-Mustasfa min 'Ilm al-Usul (The Clarified Quintessence of the Science of Legal Theory), synthesizing legal sources and epistemological principles . In his final years, he dedicated his time to Qur'anic contemplation and the intensive study of prophetic traditions, particularly Sahih al-Bukhari .
Standing and Scholarly Reception
Scholars commended al-Ghazali's intellectual breadth, dialectical precision, and eloquence across jurisprudence, theology, and spiritual ethics . Alongside this praise, certain dimensions of his thought met with scholarly controversy . His student Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi remarked that al-Ghazali "entered into the belly of the philosophers and then wanted to emerge from them but could not," while also taking issue with some of the esoteric terminology he employed . Traditionists and jurists including Ibn al-Jawzi and Ibn al-Salah criticized the presence of unverified and fabricated hadiths in his devotional writings, noting al-Ghazali's own self-characterization that his merchandise in the science of hadith was meager . In the Islamic West, scholars such as Abu Abd Allah al-Mazari raised severe objections to Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din, leading to judicial decrees that ordered its burning under the Almoravid state .
Death
Al-Ghazali died on Monday, 14 Jumada al-Akhira 505 AH (December 1111 CE) in Tabaran, the citadel of Tus, and was buried outside its gates . He was survived only by daughters, having supported his household through modest earnings and family inheritance . When asked for a final bequest while on his deathbed, he repeatedly answered: "Upon you is sincerity" until he expired .
Answer updated
List of Works
al-Wasit fi al-Madhhab (The Intermediate in the Legal School) is a manual of Shafi'i jurisprudence (fiqh). It represents the intermediate stage in a multi-tiered corpus of legal manuals and forms part of the transmission sequence of early Shafi'i legal doctrine.
Mizan al-Amal (The Scale of Action) is a treatise on ethics, practical psychology, and the path to otherworldly happiness. Structured as an examination of the nature of ultimate happiness and human character, it addresses moral conduct and the essential role of both knowledge and action.
al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (The Deliverer from Error) is an intellectual and spiritual autobiography. The work recounts an epistemological crisis, an investigation into the major intellectual schools of the era—including theology, esotericism, and philosophy—and the embrace of Sufism as the path to certainty.
Asnaf al-Maghrurin (Categories of the Deluded), also titled al-Kashf wa-l-Tabyin fi Ghurur al-Khalq Ajma'in, is a spiritual and ethical treatise examining the nature, varieties, and underlying causes of self-delusion (ghurur).
Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) is a comprehensive treatise on Islamic ethics, worship, spiritual conduct, and jurisprudence. The work aims to revive the spiritual dimensions of religious learning by bridging external legal obligations and theological doctrines with internal spiritual states and moral purification.
al-Tabr al-Masbuk fi Nasihat al-Muluk (Ingots of Cast Gold on Advice to Kings) is a treatise on governance and political ethics originally composed in Persian under the title Nasihat al-Muluk for the Seljuk sultan Muhammad ibn Malikshah.
Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers) is a treatise dedicated to refuting the metaphysical doctrines of the philosophers and exposing the contradictions in their arguments, specifically targeting the Peripatetic tradition of Aristotle as interpreted by al-Farabi and Ibn Sina.
Kimiya al-Saada (The Alchemy of Happiness) is a Persian treatise on ethics, counsel, and Sufi practice. Serving essentially as a Persian abridgment of Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences), it summarizes topics treated comprehensively in the larger Arabic book for ordinary believers seeking spiritual knowledge.
Jawahir al-Quran (Jewels of the Quran) is a treatise on Quranic sciences and spirituality. The work presents the Quran as an encompassing ocean of divine knowledge, elaborating on its overarching aims, the classification of religious and rational sciences derived from it, and a curated selection of verses central to theology and spiritual praxis.
Maarij al-Quds fi Madarij Marifat al-Nafs (The Ladders of Holiness in the Stages of Knowledge of the Soul) is a psychological and philosophical treatise on the human soul and epistemology that approaches its subject through philosophical psychology and spiritual contemplation.
Bidayat al-Hidaya (The Beginning of Guidance) is a concise treatise on Islamic devotional practice, spiritual ethics, and Sufism. It serves as a practical manual outlining the essential daily devotions, moral conduct, and self-discipline necessary for a student of knowledge and spiritual seeker embarking on the path of religious guidance.
Muhakk al-Nazar (The Touchstone of Speculation) is a treatise on logic, epistemology, and methods of argumentation. It articulates formal logic and syllogistic reasoning using Islamic examples and terminology suitable for jurists and theologians, serving as an epistemological guide to critical thinking, definition, and demonstration.
al-Mustasfa min 'Ilm al-Usul (The Clarified Quintessence of the Science of Legal Theory) is a treatise on the principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh) composed according to the methodology of the speculative theologians (tariqat al-mutakallimin). It balances systematic arrangement with analytical verification, structuring its examination of legal rulings, textual sources, extraction procedures, and legal interpretation around four primary pillars.
al-Iqtisad fi al-I'tiqad (The Middle Path in Creed) is a work of systematic theology (kalam) written to present and defend the tenets of Islamic orthodox theology. It presents Ash'ari dogmatics as a balanced, moderate stance positioned between rigid anthropomorphists and the rationalist excesses of the Mu'tazilites and philosophers, using a rigorous deductive approach to safeguard religious creed.
al-Mankhul min Taliqat al-Usul (The Sifted from the Notes on Legal Theory) is an early treatise on Islamic jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh). It summarizes, distills, and systematically arranges the legal theories and lecture notes of Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni, presenting his doctrinal formulations and methods of legal reasoning in a clear format designed for study and reference.
Fada'ih al-Batiniyya (The Infamies of the Esotericists), also known as al-Mustazhiri and fully titled Fada'ih al-Batiniyya wa-Fada'il al-Mustazhiriyya, is a theological and polemical treatise written to refute the doctrines of the Batiniyya (Isma'ilis) and affirm the legitimacy of the Abbasid caliphate.
Shifa al-Ghalil fi Bayan al-Shubah wa al-Mukhayyal wa Masalik al-Talil (The Relief of the Thirsty in Clarifying Resemblance, Plausible Cause, and Paths of Legal Ratiocination) is a treatise on Islamic legal theory (usul al-fiqh) dedicated to the analysis of analogical reasoning (qiyas) and the methods of identifying the effective legal cause ('illah).
Miyar al-Ilm fi Fann al-Mantiq (The Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic) is a treatise on logic. It clarifies the methods of intellectual reflection and the rules of syllogistic reasoning and inference, while also explaining the logical terminology and conventions used to engage philosophers.
Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche for Lights) is an esoteric and philosophical treatise dedicated to expounding the mystical symbolism of divine light, primarily centering on the Verse of Light and the prophetic tradition concerning the divine veils.
Qawaid al-Aqaid (The Foundations of the Articles of Faith) is a treatise on Islamic theology (kalam) and creed. It exists both as an independent theological tract and as the second book within the opening quarter of acts of worship (rub' al-ibadat) in Ihya Ulum al-Din.
al-Maqsad al-Asna fi Sharh Ma'ani Asma' Allah al-Husna (The Noblest Aim in Explaining the Meanings of the Most Beautiful Names of God) is a treatise on Islamic theology and spiritual ethics devoted to expounding the meanings and spiritual applications of the divine names of God. Serving as an entrance into experiential cognition through the contemplation of divine names, the work explores linguistic and theological fundamentals, sequential commentaries on ninety-nine divine names, and the ways in which human beings can adopt ethical qualities aligned with those names.