al-Tasawwuf - al-Mansha wal-Masadir
- Author died
- 1407 AH
- Editions
- Idārat Tarjumān al-Sunnah
al-Tasawwuf: al-Manshaʾ wa-al-Masadir (Sufism: Origins and Sources) is a critical polemical work on Islamic mysticism written in Arabic by the Pakistani scholar Ihsan Ilahi Zaheer (1360–1407 AH / 1941–1987 CE) . Published by Idarat Turjuman al-Sunnah in Lahore in 1406 AH (1986 CE), the book investigates the historical emergence, etymology, and doctrinal roots of Sufism, arguing that its foundational concepts derive from external religious and philosophical systems rather than orthodox Islamic sources .
Background and Purpose
The author initially intended to publish a single medium-sized volume of around three hundred pages outlining the history, doctrines, and orders of Sufism . During the drafting process, however, he decided that a comprehensive critique required at least two independent volumes, dedicating this first work exclusively to examining the emergence and external sources of Sufi thought . He followed it with a second volume, titled Dirasat fi al-Tasawwuf (Studies in Sufism) .
In the introduction, Zaheer states that he had previously believed that doctrinal excesses were limited to fringe extremists within Sufism, prompting him to consider titling his research al-Tasawwuf bayn al-Iʿtidal wa-al-Tatarruf (Sufism between Moderation and Extremism) . Upon extensive review of classical Sufi manuals and biographical literature, he concluded that moderation in Sufism was virtually non-existent, asserting that core Sufi theology fundamentally attributes divine qualities to human beings .
Content and Structure
The book is arranged into thematic sections addressing the linguistic and historical definitions of Sufism before turning to its ideological precursors:
- Etymology and Definitions: The book analyzes the contested origins of the terms tasawwuf and sufi, reviewing classical explanations cited by early authorities such as Abu Nasr al-Sarraj and Abu Bakr al-Kalabadhi . It surveys divergent definitions recorded by figures like Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi, and Western orientalists, noting that classical Sufi authors themselves recorded dozens—and in some accounts hundreds—of varying definitions .
- External Sources and Influences: The work details the external traditions asserted to have shaped Sufi terminology and worldviews, discussing foreign elements from Christianity, Neoplatonic Greek philosophy, Zoroastrianism, and Asian traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Jainism .
- Sufism and Shi'ism: A major focus of the book is devoted to demonstrating commonalities between Sufi and Shi'i theological frameworks . The author argues that Shi'ism served as an intentional conduit for transmitting foreign doctrines into the Sunni community, citing parallels in notions of continuing revelation, angelic visitation, hidden hierarchies of saintly authority, and antinomian exemptions from religious injunctions .
Methodology
Zaheer employs a comparative textual approach relying on three main elements: juxtaposing citations from classical Sufi works directly alongside passages from other religious traditions, citing external historical evaluations by Muslim scholars and Western orientalists, and sourcing evidence from both early and late Sufi figures across varying ideological orientations . He draws directly on primary sources, including Christian scriptures and standard Sufi references such as al-Sarraj's Kitab al-Lumaʿ, al-Kalabadhi's al-Taʿarruf, al-Qushayri's al-Risalah, and works by Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ibn Arabi, and Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha'rani .
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