Ibn Khaldun
- Died
- 808 AH
- Born in
- Tunis
Ibn Khaldun (732–808 AH / 1332–1406 CE) was a North African Maliki jurist, historian, statesman, and sociologist renowned for his universal history, Kitab al-Ibar ("Book of Lessons"), and its theoretical prolegomenon, the Muqaddimah.
Lineage and Early Life
His full name was Abu Zayd Wali al-Din Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami al-Ishbili. His family belonged to the Arab tribe of Hadramawt from Yemen, tracing their lineage to the companion Wa'il ibn Hujr. His ancestors settled in Carmona and then Seville in al-Andalus, before migrating to Tunis in the mid-seventh century AH following the Castilian conquest under Ferdinand III ("Ibn Adfunsh"). Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis on Wednesday, 1 Ramadan 732 AH (27 May 1332 CE; another report mentions 733 AH), into a household combining political standing and scholarly tradition.
Education and Teachers
In Tunis, Ibn Khaldun pursued both traditional religious disciplines and the rational sciences. He studied Quranic recitation under Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Burral (also recorded as Ibn Nazzal or Ibn Tarak) al-Ansari, mastering the seven readings. He acquired Arabic grammar and literature from his father and Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn al-Arabi al-Hasayiri, committing to memory major poetic collections such as the Mu'allaqat and the Diwan al-Hamasah. He studied Maliki jurisprudence under the Chief Judge of Tunis, Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Abd al-Salam, and Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-Jayyani. In hadith, he received transmissions from Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Wadi Ashi and Abd al-Muhaymin al-Hadrami, receiving from the latter general certification in the canonical collections and core texts. He studied philosophy, logic, and mathematics under Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Abili, the foremost rationalist scholar of the region.
Political Career and Travel in the West
Ibn Khaldun entered state administration at an early age, first holding the post of keeper of the royal seal (Kitabat al-Alamah) in Tunis. In 753 AH, he relocated to Fez, entering the service of the Marinid sultan Abu Inan Faris as confidential secretary (katib al-sirr), but court intrigues led to his imprisonment around 758 AH for roughly two years until Abu Inan's death. He was released and reappointed by Abu Salim. In 764 AH, he crossed to Granada, where he was received by Sultan Muhammad V al-Ghani Billah and his vizier Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib, who entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the Christian monarch in Seville.
In 766 AH, he returned to North Africa to serve as prime minister (hajib) in Bougie (Baja'ya), and subsequently engaged in the turbulent politics of Tlemcen, Biskra, and Marrakesh. Seeking relief from political strife, he secluded himself between 777 and 780 AH at Qal'at Ibn Salama, where he spent four years composing his universal chronicle and its introductory volume on the laws of human social organization (ilm al-umran). He returned to Tunis to present the work to the Hafsid sultan, but court rivalries prompted him to depart for the East under the pretext of undertaking the Hajj in Sha'ban 784 AH.
Life in Egypt and Diplomatic Mission to Timur
Ibn Khaldun arrived in Egypt in Dhu al-Qa'dah 784 AH and lectured at al-Azhar Mosque. Sultan al-Zahir Barquq appointed him Chief Maliki Judge (Qadi al-Qudat) in Jumada al-Akhirah 786 AH. In the judiciary, he enforced strict discipline against fraudulent witnesses and retained his native Maghrebi dress instead of wearing the customary Egyptian judicial robe. During his residency in Cairo, his family members perished in a shipwreck off the coast while traveling from Tunis. He was dismissed from and reappointed to the Maliki judgeship multiple times, and also directed the Baybarsiyyah Khanqah.
In 803 AH (1400–1401 CE), he traveled with the Mamluk army to Damascus during the invasion of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (Tamerlane). Ibn Khaldun met Timur outside the city walls for diplomatic negotiations, engaging in conversations that impressed the ruler. He documented these events and his broader life in his autobiography, al-Ta'rif bi-Ibn Khaldun wa-rihlatuhu gharban wa-sharqan ("Introduction to Ibn Khaldun and His Journey West and East").
Standing, Criticism, and Students
His contemporary Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib described him as an exceptional intellect of high dignity, extensive memorization, and rigorous research, possessing mastery across both rational and transmitted disciplines. In Cairo, the historian al-Maqrizi praised the Muqaddimah as a matchless work containing the quintessence of sciences, clear discernment of facts, and deep understanding of historical realities.
Conversely, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani recorded that certain contemporary scholars expressed severe criticism of him; Nur al-Din al-Haythami strongly denounced him over an alleged critical phrase concerning the martyrdom of al-Husayn ibn Ali in an earlier version of his history, though Ibn Hajar observed that no such phrase existed in the surviving recension.
Among those who transmitted from or studied under him were Ibn Marzuq, Badr al-Din al-Damamini, and Shams al-Din al-Bisati.
Death
Ibn Khaldun was reappointed to the Maliki judgeship in Ramadan 808 AH, which he held for eight days before dying suddenly in Cairo on 26 Ramadan 808 AH (four nights remaining in the month / March 1406 CE; an isolated report also records 806 AH). He was buried in the Sufi cemetery outside Bab al-Nasr.
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List of Works
Known fully as al-Ta'rif bi-Ibn Khaldun wa-rihlatuhu gharban wa-sharqan ("Introduction to Ibn Khaldun and His Journey West and East"), this work is an autobiography and travel account. It sets out personal genealogy, life experiences, and contemporary events, documenting studies, political and judicial appointments across North Africa, al-Andalus, and Egypt, and diplomatic encounters such as negotiations with Timur in Damascus.
Formally titled Kitab al-Ibar wa-Diwan al-Mubtada wa-l-Khabar, this universal history examines human social organization and historical development across nations and dynasties. It combines a theoretical prolegomenon on the principles of civilization with comprehensive chronicles detailing the histories and genealogical lines of the Arabs, Berbers, and other contemporary peoples from creation to the late fourteenth century.